Browsing by Author "Lochbaum, Marc (TTU)"
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Item A meta-analytic review of achievement goal orientation correlates in competitive sport: A follow-up to Lochbaum et al. (2016)(2016) Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Zazo, Ricardo; Çetinkalp, Zisan Kazak; Wright, Taylor (TTU); Graham, Kara Aretha (TTU); Konttinen, NiiloRecent quantitative research in competitive sport using the Task and Ego Orientations in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and Perceptions of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) pointed to a potential critical issue that the two questionnaires did not agree across a number of tested hypotheses (Lochbaum, et al., 2016). Thus, the present quantitative review examined whether correlates of the two achievement goal orientations were moderated by the two measures. To achieve this purpose, 772 unique correlates (489 TEOSQ, 283 POSQ; 402 task orientation, 370 ego orientation) from 93 studies spanning 1989-2016 from 32 countries with 26,387 participants were placed into 15 different categories and meta-analyzed. The task goal orientation was significantly and small to moderate in meaningfulness related to adaptive success factors (rw=.29), maladaptive success factors (rw=-.12), desirable behaviors (rw=.28), positive emotions (rw=.35), amotivation (rw=-.13), extrinsic motivation (rw=.20), external regulations (rw=.12), internal regulations (rw=.34), intrinsic motivation (rw=.47), the mastery/task climate (rw=.38), perceived competence (rw=.26), and trait self-esteem (rw=.35). The ego goal orientation was significantly and small in meaningfulness related to adaptive success factors (rw=.10), maladaptive success factors (rw=.12), negative emotions (rw=.11), undesirable behaviors (rw=.23), amotivation (rw=.16), extrinsic motivation (rw=.28), external regulation (rw=.21), intrinsic motivation (rw=.14), performance/ego climate (rw=.28), and perceived competence (rw=.17). The questionnaire measure was a significant moderator for the task goal orientation relationship with desirable behaviors (POSQ rw=.24; TEOSQ rw=.37), internal regulations (POSQ rw=.26; TEOSQ rw=.39), and trait self-esteem (POSQ rw=.45; TEOSQ rw=.32) and for the ego goal orientation relationship with performance/ego climate (POSQ rw=.34; TEOSQ rw=.24). Overall, the extent of the questionnaire type being a concern when examining correlates was fortunately minimal. Yet, differences in the two dominant measures exit. Recommendations for future research examining both the TEOSQ and POSQ were proposed.Item A Systematic Review with a Meta-Analysis of the Motivational Climate and Hedonic Well-Being Constructs: The Importance of the Athlete Level(2024) Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Sisneros, Cassandra (TTU)Motivational climate is known to relate to individual behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Hedonic or subjective well-being includes self-assessed positive affect (i.e., pleasant affect, moods, and emotions), negative affect (i.e., unpleasant affect, moods, and emotions), and life or domain-specific satisfaction. The aim of this review was to quantify the relationships between task and ego motivational climate scales and measures representing hedonic well-being with sports participants. Potential moderators of the motivational climate and hedonic well-being were examined. This review followed the PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO ID CRD42023470462, registered 28 October 2023). From five relevant databases, one relevant review, and hand searching, 82 articles totaling 26,378 participants (46.3% female) met the inclusion criteria. The articles spanned publication dates from 1993 to 2023, representing 18 countries, various team and individual sports, and athletes competing in elite (e.g., Olympic) to grassroot (e.g., club sport) competitions. To meta-analyze the motivational climate and hedonic well-being relationships, the random-effects model was used. For the moderation analyses, the mixed-effects model was used. The task or mastery climate relationships were medium in magnitude with positive affect and satisfaction and small with negative affect. The ego or performance climate relationships were small in magnitude for positive affect, negative affect, and satisfaction. Evidence of bias existed in the motivational climate and hedonic well-being relationships. For moderation analyses, athlete level (i.e., elite vs. non-elite) moderated (p < 0.05) the task (elite, r = 0.23; non-elite, r = 0.34) and ego motivational climate (elite, r = −0.02; non-elite, r = −0.13) and positive affect and satisfaction combined relationships. In conclusion, the motivational climate and hedonic well-being relationships were stronger for the task climate than for the ego climate. The finding that elite athlete correlations appeared dampened is important for future research. Even with the damped relationships, practitioners, from the Olympics to local clubs, should ensure the promotion of the task climate to maximize positive affect and satisfactions in and around the sport experience.Item Causal attributions for success and failure among athletes: Validation of the Croatian version of the revised Causal dimension scale (CDS-II)(2021) Prosoli, Rebeka; Banai, Benjamin; Barić, Renata; Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Cooper, Sydney (TTU); Jelić, MargaretaBackground and Study Aim. Researchers since the late 1970s have been interested in finding out the reasons attributed to outcomes. To facilitate attribution research in Croatia we translated and validated The Revised Causal Dimension Scale (CDS-II) and examined its invariance when attributing most and least successful competition performances. Materials and methods. To achieve our stated aim, 384 kinesiology students completed the translated CDS-II. To test the latent structure of the questionnaire, we used CFA and tested two alternative models (orthogonal solution and model with correlated latent variables). Additionally, we examined the CDS-II invariance when attributing the most and the least successful competition performance in sport using longitudinal CFA. The reliability was tested using Cronbach alpha coefficients. Lastly, we tested differences in latent means between most and least successful performance using pairwise t-test. Results. Similar to the originally published findings, CFA indicated the CDS-II structure with correlated latent variables had an adequate and better fit than the orthogonal solution in both situations. Furthermore, we confirmed configural, metric and scalar invariance, as well as partial strict invariance since one item’s residuals differed significantly from the others. Cronbach alpha coefficients were adequate across both situations. Lastly, athletes attributed their most successful performances to more internal, stable and controllable reasons than their least successful performances. Conclusions. We confirmed that the Croatian version of the CDS-II has adequate psychometric properties and is therefore suitable for research in sport situations.Item Did COVID-19 Pandemic Change People’s Physical Activity Distribution, Eating, and Alcohol Consumption Habits as well as Body Mass Index?(2021) Skurvydas, Albertas; Lisinskiene, Ausra; Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Majauskiene, Daiva; Valanciene, Dovile; Dadaliene, Ruta; Fatkulina, Natalja; Sarkauskiene, AstaThis cross-sectional study aimed to evaluate whether COVID-19 had an impact on people’s (aged 18–74) physical activity distribution, eating, and alcohol consumption habits as well as body mass index. We interviewed 6369 people (4545 women and 1824 men) in Lithuania before the COVID-19 pandemic started and 2392 during COVID-19 (1856 women and 536 men). They were aged 18–74 years. We found that both genders had not stopped their physical activity (PA) completely because of lockdown imitations (for example, prohibition from attending sport clubs), but they started doing different physical exercises at sport clubs. We determined the PA distribution according to the Danish Physical Activity Questionnaire (DPAQ). Despite increases in independent PA and the quantity of light PA, the amount of total energy used in metabolic equivalent of task (MET) units per day decreased significantly for both genders irrespective of age. Although the amounts of sedentary behavior, moderate PA (MPA), vigorous PA (VPA) or a combination of MPA and VPA (MVPA) did not change significantly. Surprisingly, lockdown reduced the duration of sleep for older women but increased their amount of intense VPA (>6 METs). However, the amount of intense VPA decreased for men. Both genders reported overeating less during the pandemic than before it, but did not start consuming more alcohol, and their body mass index did not change. Thus, the COVID-19 in Lithuania represented ‘good stress’ that mobilized these individuals to exercise more independently and overeat less.Item Flourishing in Young Adults: The Role of Achievement Goals, Participation Motivation, and Self-Perception Levels in Physical Activity Contexts(2021) Kazak, Zişan; Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Canpolat, Ayşe MelihaThis study aims to determine how achievement goals, participation motivation and self-perception levels in physical activity environments relate to the flourishing of young adults. The general purpose of the study was also to examine differences in selected variables of young adults flourishing in physical activity environments. To achieve our aims, the recruited sample consisted of 580 young adult exercisers ranging in age from 18 to 40 years from fitness centers in Izmir, Turkey. Participants completed a personal information form, the Flourishing Scale, the 2 × 2 Achievement Goals Questionnaire for Sport (2 × 2 AGQ-S), the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS), and the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ). We examined correlations, regressions, and path models with our measured variables. Flourishing relates significantly (p < 0.001) and positively with global self-esteem, the mastery-approach goal, intrinsic motivation, and global physical self-concept. Our path model suggested that the mastery-approach goal, intrinsic motivation, and global self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between global physical self-concept and flourishing. Our findings help to inform alternative approaches for cultivating exercisers’ flourishing. However, knowledge on how to support and develop flourishing is still under-researched in sport and exercise settings.Item Individual Motivations, Motivational Climate, Enjoyment, and Physical Competence Perceptions in Finnish Team Sport Athletes: A Prospective and Retrospective Study(MDPI, 2018) Zanatta, Thaís; Rottensteiner, Christoph; Konttinen, Niilo; Lochbaum, Marc (TTU)Despite the high rates of participation in sports clubs among Finnish youth, only a few reach elite levels. This study investigated a number of motivational factors, enjoyment, and perceived physical competence perceptions of Finnish youth athletes in their adolescence and then four years later to help understand determinants of elite level attainment. The sample consisted of 824 young athletes born in 1995, who were playing soccer, ice hockey, or basketball in the Finnish sports club system. As youths, participants completed measurements of the perceived task and ego climates, task and ego goal orientations, autonomous and controlled motivations, amotivation, sport enjoyment, and perceived physical competence. Retrospectively, the same participants completed measurements of task, ego, social relatedness, and autonomy supportive climates four years later. All variables were compared to self-reported elite status attainment. Additionally, we examined some demographic characteristics. Prospectively, the self-reported elite athletes (n = 79) reported significantly (p < 0.05) higher perceptions of a task climate, perceived physical competence, sport enjoyment, and autonomous motivation and a lower level of amotivation compared to nonelite athletes. The meaningfulness (Hedges’ g) of the significant differences ranged from small to moderate. Retrospectively, elite athletes indicated significantly (p < 0.05) higher perception of a task climate and a social relatedness climate during their sporting career. Hedges’ g ranged from moderate to large in meaningfulness. The findings highlighted the importance of focusing on the positive aspects surrounding elite athletes’ perceptions to promote youth athletes’ development, while not discounting the importance of physical size and talent.Item Physical Activity and Healthy Habits Influence Mood Profile Clusters in a Lithuanian Population(2022) Terry, Peter C.; Parsons-Smith, Renée L.; Skurvydas, Albertas; Lisinskienė, Aušra; Majauskienė, Daiva; Valančienė, Dovilė; Cooper, Sydney (TTU); Lochbaum, Marc (TTU)Moods have been investigated previously in a range of cultural contexts. In our study, we investigated if six mood profiles previously identified, termed the iceberg, inverse Everest, inverse iceberg, shark fin, submerged, and surface profiles, were also evident among a Lithuanian sample. A Lithuanian translation of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS-LTU) was completed by a sample of 746 participants (male = 199, female = 547) aged from 17–78 years (M = 41.8 years, SD = 11.4 year). Seeded k-means cluster analysis clearly identified the six hypothesized mood profiles, the prevalence of which reflected previous findings. Cluster prevalence varied significantly by sex, age, exercise and smoking status, frequency of overeating, and self-rated health of participants. Male participants and older adults were under-represented for the inverse Everest profile and over-represented for the iceberg profile. Those who reported more healthy habits (i.e., exerciser, non-smoker, rarely overeat) and those reporting better self-rated health were over-represented for the iceberg profile and under-represented for negative mood profiles; namely, the inverse Everest, inverse iceberg, and shark fin profiles. Findings supported the cross-cultural invariance of the mood profile clusters and confirmed the link between unhealthy habits and negative mood profiles.Item Physical Activity Levels of 1053 Omani 4th Grade Children: The Importance of Gender and Sport Team Participation in Achieving 60 Minutes of Daily Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity(2021) Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Kenyon, Jonathan; Kim, YoungdeokSufficient daily physical activity is associated with many positive mental, physical, and societal benefits in children. Unfortunately, most children worldwide do not achieve recommended levels of daily physical activity (PA), and a majority of evidence is from Western countries and based on subjective measures. This study examined the prevalence and correlates of objectively measured PA levels among Omani children in 2017 (pre-pandemic). A two-stage cluster sampling was used to recruit the 4th grade children across five regions of Oman. A final analytic sample included 1053 children (504 boys, 549 girls) with a mean age of 9.21 years old. PA was objectively measured using a wrist-worn Polar Active Watch during three consecutive school days. Screen-based sedentary behaviors and other PA-related behaviors were subjectively measured. On average, boys were less sedentary and more active, with a greater likelihood of meeting current recommendations when compared with girls. The self-reported time spent in screen-based sedentary behaviors was relatively low for both boys and girls and was not associated with PA; however, sports team participation was associated with a greater likelihood of meeting the current recommendation. The present study provides empirical data on objectively measured PA in Omani children. The gender disparities concerning daily PA, including sports team participation, should receive further attention.Item Physical activity, screen-based sedentary behavior, and sleep duration in adolescents: Youth risk behavior survey, 2011-2013(2016) Kim, Youngdeok (TTU); Umeda, Masataka; Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Stegemeier, Steven (TTU)This study examined the concurrent associations of physical activity and screen-based sedentary behavior with sleep duration among adolescents by using data from the national Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2011-2013. Using latent class analysis, we identified 4 latent subgroups of adolescents with various levels of physical activity and screen-based sedentary behavior. The subgroup with high levels of physical activity and low levels of sedentary behavior generally showed greater odds of having sufficient sleep (≥8 hours/night) than the other subgroups. Findings imply that concurrent achievement of a high level of physical activity and low level of screen-based sedentary behavior is necessary to promote sufficient sleep among adolescents.Item Physical Activity, Stress, Depression, Emotional Intelligence, Logical Thinking, and Overall Health in a Large Lithuanian from October 2019 to June 2020: Age and Gender Differences Adult Sample(2021) Skurvydas, Albertas; Lisinskiene, Ausra; Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Majauskiene, Daiva; Valanciene, Dovile; Dadaliene, Ruta; Fatkulina, Natalja; Sarkauskiene, AstaThis study aimed to examine relationships and group differences among adult people’s (aged 18–74) physical activity (PA), expression of stress, depression, emotional intelligence (EI), logical thinking (LT), and overall health assessment. Two hypotheses were formulated before the study. The first hypothesis is that overweight and obesity in young adults (18 to 34 years) females and males, in particular, should increase sharply and this should be associated with decreased PA, abruptly deteriorating subject health, increased stress, depression, and poorer emotion management and EI. Second hypothesis: We further thought that the better people’s reflective thinking, the more they should live a healthier life (e.g., exercise more and eat healthier), their overweight and obesity should be small or none. We aimed to confirm or reject these two hypotheses. We applied a quantitative cross-sectional study design. The study results revealed that during the lifespan of 18–24 and 25–34 years (young adults) there was a sharp increase in overweight and obesity, a decrease in PA (and especially vigorous physical activity (VPA)) (and this was particularly evident in the male), while research participants felt less stress and depression, subjective assessment of health did not change, and EI increased steadily with age (18–24 to 65–74 years). The higher the EI of the research participants from 18–24 to 65–74 years of age the higher their moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), the less stress and depression they felt. Based on the results, it can be said that both females and males prefer PA “with a hot heart rather than a cold mind.” We base this conclusion on the fact that females and males who have the highest EI also have the highest MVPA while LT is not associated with MVPA.Item Pre-Event Self-Efficacy and Sports Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis(2023) Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Sisneros, Cassandra (TTU); Cooper, Sydney (TTU); Terry, Peter C.The relationship between self-efficacy and performance exclusively within the sports environment is yet to be quantified. Hence, we meta-analysed this relationship by following the PRISMA guidelines. Two previous meta-analyses, five relevant databases, and Google Scholar were searched. Forty-four articles published between 1983 and 2021 met the inclusion criteria, with 55 independent samples. Comprehensive meta-analysis software version 4 was used for all meta-analytic calculations using a random-effects model to calculate the mean effect size, and a mixed-effects model was used for moderation analyses. The mean pre-event self-efficacy and performance effect size was r = 0.31 (95% CI 0.22, 0.40). For moderation analyses, notable mean differences (p values ≥ 0.08) resulted for concordance [concordant (r = 0.37), nonconcordant (r = 0.22)], sports skill [closed (r = 0.37), open (r = 0.23)], and athlete level [elite (r = 0.40), sub-elite (r = 0.28)]. The true effect prediction interval ranged from negative (i.e., self-efficacy impairing performance) to positive (self-efficacy improving performance) for all moderator variables except self-referenced vs. other-referenced performance. In conclusion, the relationship between pre-event self-efficacy and performance is positive and moderate in magnitude, although with prediction intervals ranging from debilitating to facilitating performance. Researchers and practitioners should note that high athlete-rated self-efficacy might not always improve impending competitive sports performance.Item Quantifying the Coach–Athlete–Parent (C–A–P) Relationship in Youth Sport: Initial Development of the Positive and Negative Processes in the C–A–P Questionnaire (PNPCAP)(MDPI, 2019) Lisinskiene, Ausra; Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); May, Emily; Huml, MattYouth sport participation is valued worldwide. Coaches, parents, and athlete youth routinely interact. These interactions impact youth sport participation. To date, only a 48-item measure exits assessing the overall perception of the coach–athlete–parent relationship with the same question set for coaches, parents, and athletes. However, this 48-item measure has not undergone quantitative development. Hence, we sought to assess these 48 items and to further develop a valid and reliable instrument measuring the coach–athlete–parent relationship. To do so, two studies were conducted. In Study 1, 308 participants completed the existing 48-item measure, resulting in 15 items that were fit into two dimensions, positive and negative group processes. In Study 2, 678 participants completed the 15-item measure. After examining the analyses, 11 items remained to form the Positive and Negative Processes in the Coach–Athlete–Parent Questionnaire (PNPCAP). In summary, the PNPCAP is a valid brief measure for assessing interpersonal relationships among coach–athlete–parents in both team and individual sport contexts. Future research is needed to continue to develop the scale for construct validity as well as translate the scale into multiple languages to determine validity in across countries.Item The relationship between self-presentation concerns and pre-game affect among adolescent American football players(2013) Podlog, Leslie; Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Kleinert, Jens; Dimmock, James; Newton, Maria; Schulte, StefanieBackground The influence of self-presentation concerns on the adolescent sport experience has received scant empirical attention. The purpose of this investigation was to prospectively examine the relationship among self-presentational concerns and pre-game affective states among middle and high school aged football players. Methods American football players (n = 112; mean age = 15.57 years) completed a measure of self-presentational concerns (SPSQ, McGowan, et al., 2008) a week prior to the measurement of selected pre-game affective states (i.e., attentiveness, self-assurance, serenity, and fear). Results Regression analyses revealed that concerns about appearing athletically untalented negatively contributed to the significant prediction (p < 0.001) of pre-game attentiveness, β = −0.43, R2adj = 19.5% (p < 0.001), and self-assurance, β = −0.38, R2adj = 11.9% (p < 0.01). Conclusion These findings highlight the importance of reducing self-presentational concerns in promoting positive pre-game mental states that likely impact the quality of athletes' competitive play and experience.Item Revisiting the Self-Confidence and Sport Performance Relationship: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis(2022) Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Sherburn, Mackenzie (TTU); Sisneros, Cassandra (TTU); Cooper, Sydney (TTU); Lane, Andrew M.; Terry, Peter C.Self-confidence is a common research topic, and most applied textbooks include interventions designed to enhance athlete confidence. Our purpose was to quantify the self-confidence and sport performance literature using meta-analytic techniques. We also examined potential risk of bias indicators, and the moderation effects of study quality, sport characteristics, timing of confidence measurement, and individual differences among participants. Following a review of two past meta-analyses, a systematic search of APA PsycArticles, ERIC, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, PsychINFO, and SPORTDiscus within the EBSCOhost platform, and some hand searching, 41 articles published between 1986 and 2020 met the inclusion criteria. Collectively, the included studies investigated 3711 athletes from 15 countries across 24 sports. The overall random effects estimate of the relationship (expressed as r) between self-confidence and performance was 0.25 (95% CI 0.19, 0.30), with little evidence of publication bias. The summed total risk of the individual study bias score did not moderate the confidence–performance relationship, whereas significant moderator effects emerged for individual sports (0.29) compared with team sports (0.14), objective (0.29) compared to subjective (0.14) performance measures, and 100% male (0.35) compared to 100% female (0.07) samples. In conclusion, the confidence–performance relationship is small in magnitude, nearly free of bias, and moderated by sport type, performance objectivity, and athlete sex.Item Task and ego goal orientations in competitive sport: A quantitative review of the literature from 1989 to 2016(2016) Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Kazak Çetinkalp, Zişan; Graham, Kara Aretha (TTU); Wright, Taylor (TTU); Zazo, RicardoAchievement goal theory (AGT) is a dominant theoretical framework. The purposes of this review were (1) to provide a summary of the task and ego goal orientations literature in competitive sport as measured by the Task and Ego Orientations in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) or the Perceptions of Success in Sport Questionnaire (POSQ), (2) to test the interdependence of the two goal orientations, and (3) to provide the estimated means for both orientations across a number of historically examined moderator variables. 260 studies met inclusion criteria totaling 80,959 unique participants across 39 countries and 32 sports. Youth samples were nearly 50% of all included studies. The meta-analyzed intercorrelations (rw=.18, z=9.96, p<.000) supported the conceptualized interdependence of the two goal orientations. The estimated mean values were 4.15±.30 (task) and 3.04±.51 (ego). However, differences, POSQ compared to TEOSQ, existed in the estimated means (g=.92 task; g=1.09 ego). Thus, the TEOSQ and POSQ samples for the moderator variables (i.e. sex, sport level, sport type, and collective/individualistic countries) were examined separately. Results both supported and refuted the hypotheses and also differed by measure. Because of TEOSQ and POSQ inconsistencies, an additional analysis was undertaken to examine whether the TEOSQ and POSQ differed to a common correlate motivation climate. This analysis revealed measurement differences in the ego to ego climate relationships. In conclusion, AGT has been extensively researched in competitive sport. The inconsistent pattern of results raises a number of future research questions.Item The 3 × 2 Achievement Goals in the Education, Sport, and Occupation Literatures: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis(2023) Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Sisneros, Cassandra (TTU); Kazak, ZişanAchievement goal theory has been a dominant motivation framework since the 1980s. The 3 × 2 achievement goal framework emerged in the literature in 2011. We aimed to conduct a systematic review with meta-analysis following the PRISMA guidelines of the 3 × 2 achievement goal research in education, sport, and occupation settings. We retrieved articles from searching EBSCOhost and Google Scholar platforms. Eligible articles contained the 3 × 2 achievement goal in education, sport, or occupation, were published in a peer-reviewed journal, and provided mean data or correlate data. We tested hypotheses concerned with (1) the overall pattern of achievement goal endorsement, (2) achievement goal differences by domain (education, sport) and compulsory nature of the domains or sub-domains, and (3) achievement goal relationships with correlates (e.g., learning strategies, motivations, performance). After screening, 56 articles met all inclusion criteria, providing 58 samples across education (n = 44), sport (n = 10), and occupation (n = 4) settings with 35,031 unique participants from 15 countries. Participants endorsed the task- and self-approach goals more than the counterpart avoidance goals, other-avoidance goals more than other-approach goals, and the intercorrelations and reliability coefficients were acceptable. Minimal impact results from examining within and across study bias statistics. Of importance, the domain (i.e., education, sport) and the compulsory nature of the domain or sub-domains (i.e., primary-secondary education, sport) moderated goal endorsement (group mixed-effects p < 0.05, g values medium to very large). These groupings also moderated the other goal differences. Concerning our correlates analyses, most meta-analyzed correlations among the achievement goals and correlates were small in meaningfulness with the largest correlations (0.30–0.42) between the approach goals merged and the task- and self-approach goals and facilitative learning strategies and desired motivations. In conclusion, the 3 × 2 achievement goals literature is diverse. Furthering the study and application of this model requires overcoming inherent limitations (i.e., consistent response scale sets), teasing out differences between the task- and self-goals, measuring performance outcomes, and cross-cultural collaborations.Item The Coach–Athlete–Parent Relationship: The Importance of the Sex, Sport Type, and Family Composition(2022) Lisinskiene, Ausra; Lochbaum, Marc (TTU)Interpersonal relationships exist in many forms within the sport environment. Athlete performance and career direction, at times, depend on their formed sport relationships. Positive and negative interpersonal relationships among the coach, the athlete, and the parent affects many athletes’ behavioral outcomes, such as continued participation. Our research aimed to understand whether the positive and negative processes in the coach, athlete, and parent interpersonal relationships depend on athletes’ sex, age, family composition, sport experience, and the type of sport. To achieve our research purpose, 632 volunteer student-athletes (aged 11–19) completed our survey. Our survey included the Positive and Negative Processes in the Coach–Athlete–Parent (PNPCAP) relationship scale and demographics (i.e., sex, age, family composition, years in competitive sport, and sport type). The study results revealed that positive processes, as measured by the positive PNPCAP subscale, were invariant to our categorical variables. However, participants’ self-ratings of negative PNPCAP-measured processes depended upon sex, sport type, and family makeup. Significant (p < 0.05) two-way interactions revealed boys involved in individual sports and residing without their parents or with one self-reported a higher level of the negative processes. The calculated effect size values with the other groupings were mostly medium in magnitude. The third significant two-way interaction resulted for sport type by family makeup. This two-way interaction revealed individual sport participants without or residing with one parent reported higher levels of negative processes. The effect size values were a mix of small and medium in meaningfulness. In conclusion, while positive Coach–Athlete–Parent processes appear invariant to our measured categorical variables, sex, sport type, and family makeup moderated the negative processes. Further research, such as mixed methods, is required to best understand and provide direction for intervention research to reduce negative processes in youth sport.Item The Importance of Sports Participation on Lithuanian Adolescents' Social and Emotional Health(2024) Lochbaum, Marc (TTU); Lisinskiene, Ausra; Sisneros, Cassandra (TTU); Cooper, Sydney (TTU); Paulauskas, Rutenis; Majauskiene, DaivaGlobal mental health rates are staggering. Youth mental health in sport is a topic with increasing research attention. To date, most youth sport research examines mental health from isolated events as opposed to a cumulative-assets framework. Our main research question examined sport participation group differences regarding four mental health domains; emotional competence, belief-in-others, belief-in-self, and engaged living, and the composite covitality meta-indicator. To answer our research questions, 1965 Lithuanian youths (60.10% female) ranging in age from 11 to 17 (M = 13.62, SD = 1.96) from urban and rural school districts completed our survey. Our results indicated many significant differences (p < 0.001) emerged for participant sex, age grouping, and sport participation (competitive, leisure, or none). Only for the sport participation were the MANOVA and ANOVA effect size values at least small in magnitude. In the follow-up analyses (all p's < 0.001), the competitive group differed from the no sport group (effect sizes medium-to-large) and to the leisure participant group (effect sizes small) in all four mental health domains and the meta-indicator covitality. Small-to-medium effect size values resulted between the leisure and no sport groups. Sport participation, even for leisure, is related to improved self-reported social and emotional health in our large sample. The practical implication is clear that all governments and such bodies should provide accessible and affordable sport participation opportunities, whether competitive or recreational. Longitudinal research, as a future direction in sport contexts, will help to best understand and move forward with youth mental health.Item Validation of a Lithuanian-Language Version of the Brunel Mood Scale: The BRUMS-LTU(2022) Terry, Peter C.; Skurvydas, Albertas; Lisinskiene, Ausra; Majauskiene, Daiva; Valanciene, Dovile; Cooper, Sydney (TTU); Lochbaum, Marc (TTU)Mood can be considered as a diffuse and global emotional state, with both valence and arousal characteristics, that is not directed towards a specific object. Investigation of moods in specific language and cultural contexts relies on the availability of appropriately validated measures. The current study involved the translation and validation of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) from English into Lithuanian. The 24-item, 6-factor scale, referred to as the BRUMS-LTU, was administered to 746 participants who were fluent in Lithuanian (nmen = 199 (26.7%), nwomen = 547 (73.3%); age range = 17–78 years, M = 41.8 years, SD = 11.4 years). Confirmatory factor analysis showed an adequate fit of the hypothesized measurement model to the data (CFI = 0.954, TLI = 0.944, RMSEA = 0.060 [CI 0.056, 0.064], SRMR = 0.070) and multi-sample analysis supported configural, metric, scalar, and residual invariance across genders. Concurrent measures (i.e., Perceived Stress Scale, Big Five Personality Test) correlated with subscale scores in line with theoretical predictions, supporting both convergent and divergent validity. Internal consistency coefficients of the six subscales were satisfactory. Mood scores varied significantly by gender, with men generally reporting more positive moods than women. Findings support the adequacy of the psychometric properties of the BRUMS-LTU. Thus, the scale can be recommended for use in further psychological studies of mood in Lithuania and may also be useful for applied practitioners.