Browsing by Author "Lochbaum, Marc"
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Item The 2 × 2 Achievement Goals in Sport and Physical Activity Contexts: A Meta-Analytic Test of Context, Gender, Culture, and Socioeconomic Status Differences and Analysis of Motivations, Regulations, Affect, Effort, and Physical Activity Correlates(MDPI, 2020) Lochbaum, Marc; Zanatta, Thaís; Kazak, ZişanApproach-avoidance achievement goals are studied extensively in the context of competitive sports and physical activity, including leisure and physical education. Building upon past meta-analyses, the purpose of this quantitative review was to provide basic descriptive data, estimated means for testing of several research questions (i.e., context, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status), and meta-analyzing outcome correlates (i.e., self-determination constructs, affect, effort, and physical activity). A total of 116 studies up to 1 December 2018, met inclusion criteria. These 116 studies, totaling a sample size of 43,133 participants (M sample size = 347.85 + 359.36), from 22 countries with 92.7% of samples, are drawn from participants less than 30 years of mean age. From the 116 unique studies, nearly half (49.6%) were from a sport context and the rest from leisure-time physical activity (PA) (19.4%) and physical education (PE) (31.0%) contexts. A number of different analyses were conducted to examine our research questions. Support was found for several of our research questions: The mastery-approach goal was endorsed more than all the other goals, while sport participants endorsed the performance-approach goal more than PA and PE groups; females endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal more than males; more culturally individualistic countries endorsed the mastery-approach goal; and countries from lower socioeconomic and interdependent countries endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal than higher socioeconomic and independent countries. Concerning, the meta-analyzed correlates, most relationships were hypothesized through the performance-approach goal, and both avoidance goals appeared to be too similar in relationships with the correlates raising theoretical concerns. Overall, the mastery-approach goals had the most meaningful biased corrected effect size values (rc) with the outcome correlates, such as relative autonomy (0.47), intrinsic motivation (0.52), effort (0.40), positive affect (0.42), physical activity intent (0.38). Based on the present and past meta-analytic results, the 2 × 2 achievement goals as currently measured was questioned. Future research suggestions included fundamental questionnaire issues, the need for latent profile analysis or other more advanced statistics, and whether the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework is the most appropriate framework in physical activity contexts.Item 2 × 2 achievement goals profiles in Chilean competitive and recreational athletes: a first look(2016) Lochbaum, Marc; Jean-Noel, Javan; Kazak Çetinkalp, Zişan; Vallejo-Reyes, Felipe Andrés; Mena Campbell, JosePurpose: was to examine the 2 × 2 achievement goal profiles of Chilean young adults regularly participating in competitive and recreational sport. Materials: participants were 108 female and 132 males who were recruited from the Valparaiso and Viña del Mar areas of Chile. Participants completed a valid and reliable measure of the 2 × 2 achievement goals referenced to sport participation. Results: indicated that the entire sample significantly ( p < .05) and very meaningfully (Hedges’ g range 1.13 - 2.91) endorsed the mastery-approach goal more so than the other three achievement goals. Male participants significantly ( p < .05) endorsed both approach goals and the mastery goal contrast more so than the female participants. These differences approached medium in meaningfulness (Hedges’ g range .40 - .46). Significant differences did not exist between competitive and recreational athletes on any of the achievement goals or goal contrasts. Confirming the lack of significant differences were the computed small to negligible in magnitude effect sizes. Conclusions: the present data were a first look into profiling sport participants on the 2 × 2 achievement goals in Chile. Given this sample of Chilean participants endorsed the performance goals far less than found in the sport psychology 2 × 2 achievement goal literature, more research is needed before these results are generalized to Chilean sport participants. Future research must also examine the relationships of antecedents and consequences to the 2 × 2 achievement goals to advance sport psychology in Chile.Item A correlational meta-analysis of the interaction between achievement goals and self-determination theory in sport, exercise, and physical education(2014-12) Jean-Noel, Javan; Lochbaum, Marc; Masataka, Umeda; Stock, Matt S.Elliot’s achievement goals and hierarchal model of approach and avoidance and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) are two constructs empirically proven to be conducive to accurately researching motivation within sport, exercise, and physical education settings both independently and when studied concurrently. The purpose of this paper was to examine the relationships between the two theories in the aforementioned settings by conducting a meta-analytic review. A literature search was first performed to find relevant studies. Data analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 2 software to compute the effect size, using sample weighted mean correlation, for each relationship between Elliot’s achievement goals and SDT. Separate analyses were run to examine any effects of age on the relationship between the two theories of motivation. Fifteen out of eighteen hypothesized relationships were statistically significant along with an additional five unpredicted relationships. Eleven relationships had significant differences in effect sizes for people < 18 years old compared with people ˃ 18 years old. The results were largely congruent with the extant literature. This review can serve as a guide to the processes behind motivation in sport, physical education, and exercise.Item A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW AND INVESTIGATION OF THE(2021-09-27) Smith, Chad W; Lochbaum, Marc; Stevens, Tara; Hart, Melanie; Taylor, LesLeeThe purpose of the current meta-analytic review and investigation was to examine the implicit theories, perceived competence, and 2 x 2 achievement goals in exercise and sport settings. Specifically, to examine the revised social-cognitive model of achievement motivation and its effectiveness in these particular settings. The meta-analytic review was conducted to gain a better understanding of the relationships between these variables in exercise and sport settings in the extant literature to provide guidance for future research. The review showed that research in exercise and sport had yet to examine these variables in a competitive sport setting with a true performance outcome. The investigation was then created based on this finding. In the investigation, 455 university golf class students completed measures to assess the revised social-cognitive model constructs with a true performance measure (golf putting score). Structural modeling was employed to examine the revised social-cognitive model’s fit in the competitive sport setting. The results showed that the model was an acceptable fit and most of the hypotheses based on the meta-analytic review findings were supported. Specifically, findings from the investigation showed the importance of incremental beliefs, high perceived competence, and approach goal adoption on performance in a competitive sport setting. Since this was the first study to examine the revised social-cognitive model in a competitive sport setting with a true performance measure, directions for future research are discussed.Item Achievement goals and intensivity of physical activity during free play in children: The moderating role of perceived sports confidence(2015) Lochbaum, Marc; Okafor, Emeka T.; Brenner, David C.; Kazak Çetinkalp, ZişanPurpose: to examine the moderating role of sport confidence and resultant the achievement goal profile with physical activity intensity during free play. Material: participants were 28 children participating in an after-school program. The 28 children completed measures of task and ego goal orientations and sport confidence two weeks prior to having their heart rate monitored during a free play session. Results: indicated that children with high sport confidence were characterized ( p < .05; Cohen’s d s > 1.10) by higher task and ego orientations and average heart rate over the course of the free play session when compared to the low sport confidence children. The moderate sport confidence children were not significantly different than the other groups expect for ego orientation though effect sizes indicated this group tended towards being more similar to the high sport confidence group. The results were confounded as all children in the low sport confidence condition were girls. Conclusions: Sport confidence moderates physical activity intensity during free play in children and is characterized by a higher ego orientation and generally higher task orientation. But given all of the low confident children were females, intervention work is needed at early ages with girls to build sport confidence and motivations for both goal orientations to hopefully increase physical activity intensity during free play.Item Adaptación y validación de la escala de motivación en el deporte 2 (EMD-2) para estudiantes universitarios chilenos(La Universidad de Murcia, 2018) Vallejo-Reyes, Felipe Andrés; Mena Campbell, Jose Ignacio; Lochbaum, Marc; Duclos-Bastías, Daniel Michel; Guerrero-Santana, Inés; Carrasco Beltrán, Hernaldo JuliánResumen: La teoría de la Autodeterminación (TAD) (Deci y Ryan, 1985) asume al ser humano como un organismo integrado en un contexto social, y a la motivación como un constructo organizado en un continuo que va de la motivación intrínseca a la amotivación. Las primeras versiones del instrumento denominado Escala de Motivación en el Deporte (Brière,Vallerand, Blais, y Pelletier, 1995;Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Brière y Blais, 1995) no cubrían las seis dimensiones del continuum conceptual del modelo. Hubo diversos estudios de validación hasta la construcción de la Escala de Motivación de Deporte-2 (Pelletier, Rocchi, Vallerand, Deci y Ryan, 2013) en inglés, la cual incluye todas las dimensiones del constructo. Hasta la fecha, no contábamos con una adaptación al español de esta última versión del instrumento. La traducción reversa del instrumento se aplicó a una muestra de muestra de 221 deportistas competitivos y recreativos. Los resultados indicaron la adecuación de los datos para hacer un análisis factorial. La confiabilidad general de la prueba fue .78. Hubo diferencias significativas en tres regulaciones entre deportistas competitivos y recreativos. Solamente cuatro de las 6 escalas presentaron ítems con cargas de ítem satisfactorias. Por lo que la prueba requiere estudios posteriores para ser empleada con utilidad en evaluación con deportistas. La escala de regulación integrada de la versión en español del presente estudio se comportó con un excelente ajuste psicométrico, lo cual constituye un importante aporte ya que no se contaba con estos datos en español para una versión de 12 ítems de la escala de motivación en el deporte dentro de la TAD.Item Assessing the Effects of Presence and Sense of Place on Exercise Enjoyment in a Virtual Environment(2023-05) Wintemute, Michael T.; Cummins, Glenn; Rasmussen, Eric E.; Condis, Megan; Lochbaum, MarcThe purpose of this study was to examine relationships between presence and sense of place, and exercise enjoyment, in virtual environments. Interactive fitness equipment users were asked to complete an online survey comprising items from established measures of motivation, personality, exercise enjoyment, and the media phenomena transportation and sense of place. Hierarchical regression analysis was employed to assess whether transportation or sense of place explained more of the variance in virtual exercise enjoyment, when controlling for demographics, exercise enjoyment and habits, motivation, and personality. When controlling for the other variables, the two media phenomena significantly increased the amount of variance in virtual exercise enjoyment explained. However, only sense of place was a significant, positive predictor of virtual exercise enjoyment. The results of this study suggest interactive fitness devices that allow users to experience a sense of place in virtual environments can facilitate a more enjoyable exercise experience, and as such can be a promising intervention tool to encourage behavior change.Item Burnout in athletics: A test of self-determination theory(2006-12) Pietraszuk, Tara K.; Lochbaum, Marc; Henry, Judith; Meaney, Karen S.The purpose of this investigation was to test Vallerand’s Self-Determination Theory (SDT) in predicting burnout in athletes. This model suggests that social factors predict psychological mediators which in turn, predict motivation. Motivation then will predict certain consequences. The self-determination model has been highly researched; however, to date no examination of the self-determination model using burnout as a consequence have been investigated. To accomplish this purpose, female student athletes (N = 61) who were participating in a spring sport completed a packet of questionnaires, which assessed the three dimensions of Vallerand’s model. The questionnaire packet consisted of the Sport Climate Questionnaire (SCQ), Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), and Basic Need Satisfaction in Relationships Scale (BNSRS) and the Eades Athletic Burnout Inventory (EABI). Using regression analysis, results indicate that amotivation and competence remained significant predictors (pItem Cardiovascular and Energy Requirements of Parents Watching Their Child Compete: A Pilot Mixed-Methods Investigation(2017) Lochbaum, Marc; Prosoli, Rebeka; Barić, RenataPurpose: Researchers have extensively documented the cardiovascular and metabolic demands for sports participation. To date, researchers have ignored the same requirements of competitor’s parents. Hence, our purpose was to document parent cardiovascular and metabolic responses to watching their child compete while also paying particular attention to their thoughts before and after the competition. Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) drove interpretation of parent thoughts. Materials: Parents wore a device, made by Firstbeat Technologies, which continuously monitored heart rate. The parents wore the device the night before the competition to be acclimated to the technology and during the event until later in the day. Parents also completed two open-ended questions, one before the tournament and one after the contest. Results: Before the contest, the dad expected that his son won the event (Croatian National Championships for juniors). Conversely, the mother’s expectations centered more on her son’s enjoyment and competing to the best of his abilities. Parents had differing cardiovascular and energy requirement responses to watching their son compete. In addition, post-competition reflections differed as the father expressed disappointment whereas the mother expressed sadness. Conclusions: The data presented are unique and a first in the sports literature. The parents varied in the intensity of their cardiovascular responses and calories burned while watching their son compete. The father’s cardiovascular response over the course of watching was that of an aerobic workout. Whether this pattern is unique or universal are a critical research question. Last, AGT appears relevant when assessing the parent’s expectations.Item Comparison of Polar Active Watch and Waist- and Wrist-Worn ActiGraph Accelerometers for Measuring Children’s Physical Activity Levels during Unstructured Afterschool Programs(MDPI, 2018) Kim, Youngdeok; Lochbaum, MarcBackground: The purpose of this study was to examine the convergent validity of the Polar Active Watch (PAW), a consumer-grade wrist-worn activity monitor, against waist- and wrist-worn research-grade monitors, the ActiGraph GT3X+/GT9X accelerometers, in children. Methods: Fifty-one children (18 boys; mean age = 10.30 ± 0.91 years) wore the three monitors (PAW, GT3X+, and GT9X) during an 80-min afterschool program across five school days. Time spent in sedentary, light-intensity (LPA), and moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) were estimated from each monitor. The correlation, mixed model, mean absolute percentage error, equivalence testing, and Bland-Altman analyses were used to examine the comparability of PA estimates of the PAW with GT3X+/GT9X accelerometers. Results: Moderate to strong correlations for sedentary and MVPA minutes, and weak correlation for LPA were observed between the PAW and GT3X+/GT9X accelerometers. Significant mean differences were found, where the PAW tended to overestimate time in sedentary and MVPA and underestimate LPA minutes, compared to the GT3X+/GT9X accelerometers. However, a non-significant mean difference in MVPA minutes was observed when using an adjusted MET threshold (≥4 METs) for the PAW, compared to the GT3X+ accelerometer. Conclusions: The PAW showed moderate convergent validity for sedentary and MVPA minutes against the GT3X+/GT9X accelerometers. However, caution is needed in the direct comparison between the monitors due to relatively large mean differences and within-group variability.Item Discriminant validity of the positive and negative processes in the C–A–P Questionnaire(2020) Lisinskiene, Ausra; Huml, Matt; Lochbaum, MarcGlobally, youth sport is highly valued and prevalent. Coaches, athletes, and parents are the main players. To date no one measure quantifies these vital interactions. To rectify this surprising omission, the Positive and Negative Processes in the C–A–P Questionnaire (PNPCAP) was developed in the Lithuanian language. This study sought to further the development of the PNPCAP by providing evidence for discriminant validity. To achieve this purpose, 192 females (M age = 13.64, SD = 1.59) and 239 males (M age = 14.02, SD = 1.50) completed the PNPCAP measure along with the Perceptions of Success Questionnaire, Sport Climate Questionnaire, Self-Determination Scale and provided some youth sport participation information. The resultant correlation matrix provided evidence of discriminant validity as the pattern verified the hypothesized relationship in that positive and significant correlations were found with the C–A–P positive process scale and the task orientation, self-determined awareness of self and perceived choice, and perceived autonomy support. Negative and significant correlations were found with the C–A–P negative process scale and the task orientation, self-determined awareness of self and perceived choice, and perceived autonomy support. Researchers are encouraged to translate and use the PNPCAP in youth sport settings to better the youth sport experience for athletes and their parents and coaches.Item Examining the day-to-day bidirectional associations between physical activity, sedentary behavior, screen time, and sleep health during school days in adolescents(PLOS, 2020) Kim, Youngdeok; Umeda, Masataka; Lochbaum, Marc; Sloan, Robert A.Background Adolescence is a vulnerable period for experiencing poor sleep health. Growing studies have demonstrated lifestyle behaviors including physical activity (PA), screen time (SCT), and sedentary behaviors (SED) as the potential factors associated with sleep health in adolescents; yet, the evidence is inconclusive and the directionality of temporal associations across school days are not well understood. This study examined the day-to-day bidirectional associations of lifestyle behaviors with sleep health parameters in adolescents. Methods A total of 263 adolescents (58% boys) in 6th - 8th grades wore an accelerometer for 24-hour across the three consecutive school days and completed recording SCT in time-diary and answering sleep quality (SQ) questions for each day. Sleep-wake patterns as well as time spent in moderate- and vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA) and SED were objectively quantified from the wrist-worn accelerometry data across the two segments of the day (during and after school hours). Mixed model analyses were conducted to test bidirectional associations between lifestyle factors and sleep health parameters in each temporal direction across the days. Additionally, indirect associations across the days were tested using an autoregressive cross-lagged model analysis in the framework of path analysis. Results MVPA minutes in a day did not predict sleep health parameters that night. The bidirectional associations were partially observed between SED and sleep health, but the significance and direction of the associations largely varied by the time segment of a day as well as types of sleep health parameters. Additionally, greater SCT during the day was associated with lower SQ that night (b = -0.010; P = .018), and greater SQ was associated with greater MVPA during school hours (b = 6.45; P = .028) and lower SED after school hours (b = -39.85; P = .029) the next day. Lastly, there were significant indirect associations of SCT with sleep health parameters across the days indicating multi-day lagged effects of SCT on sleep health the later nights. Conclusion This study highlights the importance of lowering SCT for better sleep health in adolescents during school days. Additionally, perceived SQ is shown to be a potential significant predictor promoting healthy behaviors the next day independent of sleep-wake patterns. Further studies are warranted to confirm the observed temporal associations between SCT, SQ, and behavioral outcomes in this vulnerable population.Item Extraversion, emotional instability, and self-reported exercise: The mediating effects of approach-avoidance achievement goals(2013) Lochbaum, Marc; Litchfield, Kylee; Podlog, Leslie; Lutz, RaferBackground Understanding leisure time physical inactivity is a priority in Westernized nations where participation rates are low. The present study sought to address this priority by examining whether the extraversion and emotional instability to leisure time exercise relationships were mediated through Elliot's (1999) 2 × 2 achievement goals. Methods Participants were 116 female and 97 male volunteers from a Southwestern community (mean age = 37.21 years, range 24–69) who completed measures of extraversion, emotional instability, approach-avoidance achievement goals, and 7-day recall of leisure-time exercise. Multiple mediation models (Preacher and Hayes, 2008) were run to specifically examine our hypotheses. Results The mastery-approach goal mediated the relationship from extraversion to overall exercise and strenuous intensity exercise. Results indicated emotional instability had direct effects on overall and strenuous leisure time exercise while also having significant (p < 0.05) indirect mediation paths through the performance-approach and avoidance goals. The extraversion and emotional instability models accounted from 15.89% to 29.82% of variance in the various self-reported exercise measures. Conclusion The results suggest the promotion of leisure-time exercise would be improved in the studied personalities by manipulation of achievement goals.Item Flourishing, Affect, and Relative Autonomy in Adult Exercisers: A Within-Person Basic Psychological Need Fulfillment Perspective(MDPI, 2018) Kazak Çetinkalp, Zişan; Lochbaum, MarcFlourishing is a construct used to understand human growth. Exercise psychology research is scant concerning this valuable construct. Hence, our purpose was to examine different levels of flourishing and related constructs within a large group of self-reported exercisers from a basic psychological need profile perspective. Participants were 389 female and 387 male adults attending fitness centers. Hierarchical cluster analyses revealed the presence of three clusters with significantly different psychological need profiles across the three basic needs. Separate multivariate analyses of variance were used for the analyses for our demographic variables and psychological variables. Follow-up post hoc tests showed that these clusters differed significantly and were low to moderate in meaningfulness regarding exercise min/week and sports experience. The clusters differed significantly, with moderate to large meaningfulness, in flourishing, positive affect, and relative autonomy. Self-reported exercise and sports participation were not the important cluster characteristics. Our results indicated that self-reported levels of flourishing, positive affect, and autonomy differ even within a large group of self-reported exercisers attending fitness centers that on average exceeded the weekly-recommended number of moderate-to-vigorous activity minutes. Thus, our results suggest the importance of fitness centers in meeting their participants’ three basic needs.Item High-school athletes' implicit theories of ability generalize across sports and academic domains(2011-08) Pertuit, Nicholas; Hamman, Douglas; Middleton, Mike; Lochbaum, MarcAccording to global comparisons, the American education system is struggling with nearly 7,000 students dropping out of secondary schools each day. Of particular interest to this study is that coaches of extracurricular high school sports could play a key role in resolving this crisis. The purpose of the proposed study was to examine the extent to which implicit theories of ability may generalize across the domains of sports and academics. Participants were adolescents (N=395; ages 14-19 years old) who attend a high school in western Texas. Drawing on similar academic research, SEM was used to identify any relations between the two domains. The developed model showed to be a very good fit for the data, χ2 = 473.183 (321), p < .001, CFI = .958, TLI = .950, and RMSEA = .035 with a 90% confidence interval of .028 - .041. All items had adequate factor loadings as well (.485- .817). The results showed that there does exist a statistically and practically significant relation between implicit theories of ability in the sports domain and implicit theories of intelligence in the academic domain in high school student-athletes. This connection could lead to more economical and practical approaches of using coaches to help ameliorate America’s struggles with dropout and low achievement. Implications for future research include using experimental studies to determine which coaching methods in athletics most positively influence academic achievement, investigate causal relations between coaching and academics, and longitudinal studies to investigate the long-term effects of fostering an incremental theory in high school student-athletes.Item The Initial Questionnaire Development in Measuring of Coach-Athlete–Parent Interpersonal Relationships: Results of Two Qualitative Investigations(MDPI, 2019) Lisinskiene, Ausra; May, Emily; Lochbaum, MarcThe interpersonal relationship among the coach, athlete, and parent (C-A-P) in youth sports is a complex and dynamic phenomenon. The evaluation of such interpersonal relationship becomes an important factor in trying to understand the overall youth sports environment. The purpose of this study was to begin the development of a questionnaire to assess the coach-athlete–parent interpersonal relationships in youth sports. To achieve our purpose, two qualitative studies were conducted. In the first qualitative study, 136 research participants completed an online questionnaire asking for statements concerning the C-A-P based on an extensive literature review. In the second phase, a follow up phenomenological study design was conducted. For the phenomenological study, 30 participants (10 coaches, 10 athletes, and 10 youth sports parents) completed in-depth interviews. Based on both qualitative study results, the following three themes emerged: group processes, motivation, and over-involvement. The two qualitative investigations revealed themes and 48 potential questions to be used in developing a C-A-P questionnaire in quantifying the C-A-P results.Item Intra-group factorial model as the basis of pedagogical control over motor and functional fitness dynamic of 14-16 years old girls(2016) Ivashchenko, Olga; Khudolii, Oleg; Iermakov, Sergii; Lochbaum, Marc; Cieslicka, Miroslawa; Zukow, Walery; Nosko, Mykola; Yermakova, TetianaThe purpose of the research: to determine methodological approaches to pedagogic control over motor and functional fitness dynamic of 14–16 years’ age girls. Material: in the research 14 years’ age (n=31), 15 years’ age (n=26) and 16 years’ age (n=28) girls participated. Results: for pedagogic control over motor and functional fitness dynamic of 14–16 years’ age girls the most informative were the following tests: for 14 years’ age girls: “Serkin’s test” (0.854), “Shuttle run 4х9 m” (0.833), “Genchy’s test” (.814), “Pressing ups in lying position” (.762); for 15 years’ age girls: “Hanging on bent arms” (.967), “Jumps with additions” (.964), “Serkin’s test” (.928), “Strange’s test” (,927); for 16 years age girls: “Jumps with additions” (.959), “Long jump from the spot” (.959), “Genchy’s test” (.945), “Strange’s test” (.938). Conclusions: factorial intra-group model of motor and functional fitness dynamic of 14, 15 and 16 years’ girls is the basis for optimization of pedagogic control at physical culture lessons in schools. In factorial model of motor and functional fitness dynamic of 14 years’ age girls, priority place is taken by functional fitness of respiratory and cardio-vascular systems, coordination and power fitness. In 15 years’ age girls the place of priority is taken by coordination and power fitness, functional fitness of respiratory and cardio-vascular systems, differentiation of space characteristics of movements. In 16 years old girls the place of priority is taken by functional fitness of respiratory and cardiovascular systems, power fitness and power endurance.Item Investigating instructor credibility and autonomy support: A case of physical education graduate teaching assistants(2020-12) Nickell, Marc D; Matteson, Shirley M.; Lochbaum, Marc; Zimmerman, Aaron S.Literature is robust in discussing the contributions of physical education on higher education and the impact on students, alumni, institutions, and society. The environment in higher education physical education settings vary from institution to institution due to how the programs are implemented. For example, graduate teaching assistants serve as lead instructors for some programs in lieu of full-time faculty. Some institutions also require physical activity courses to earn a baccalaureate degree, while others offer physical activity courses as an elective. Environments vary but there is a common objective of most higher education physical activity programs: to promote lifelong healthy habits. With a similar objective and varying environments, it is essential to understand the experiences and perspectives of graduate teaching instructors serving as lead instructors in order to understand if programs are succeeding in promoting lifelong healthy habits. The purpose of the study was to assess instructor credibility and the promotion of autonomy from the experiences and perspectives of graduate teaching assistant instructors in physical activity courses with supporting evidence from the students enrolled in their classes. Scholarship is clear that higher source credibility correlates with greater persuasive effectiveness and increased learning. Researchers also guide one through the notion that the promotion of autonomous motivation inside the classroom leads to increased autonomous motivation outside of the classroom related to the same or similar activities. A constructivist framework and case study methodology were deployed in an effort to truly understand how GTAs perceive they are supporting student autonomy and displaying credibility. The setting of this study included a large public university in the southern United States that has graduate teaching assistants serving as lead instructors for physical activity courses. Participants for the study included six graduate students that served as lead instructors for the physical activity program. Additionally, the students enrolled in the GTAs classes completed an autonomy support and credibility survey. The results of data analysis produced the following emergent themes: 1) displaying compassion, 2) feedback from students, 3) importance of management, and 4) communication with students. Each theme had corresponding sub-themes.Item Links between Adolescent Athletes’ Prosocial Behavior and Relationship with Parents: A Mixed Methods Study(MDPI, 2018) Lisinskienė, Aušra; Lochbaum, MarcAdolescent relationships with parents are of the highest importance. The relationships likely reflect the nature of internal working models in youth sport that may well function as a psychological template during the construction of youth prosocial behavior. However, researchers’ focus to date has concerned specific aspects of parental practices in child-based sporting activities. There is a lack of research covering parent-athlete interpersonal relationships concerned with how the relationships affect adolescent prosocial behavior. The purpose of this mixed methods explanatory sequential study was to examine teenage athletes’ prosocial behavior and their relationships with parents. To achieve our purpose, we obtained quantitative data from 1348 athletes and non-athletes (ages 12–16), and qualitative data from 12 adolescent athletes and 12 youth sports parents. In the quantitative phase, we assessed adolescent prosocial behavior regarding the following six forms of prosocial behavior: public, anonymous, dire, compliant, altruistic and emotional. In the qualitative follow-up, three themes emerged from the adolescent athlete’s perspective: (1) sport as an escape; (2) parent-child relationships in youth sports; (3) adolescents’ desired behavior. Three themes emerged from the parental perspective: (1) sport as protection and as a school of life; (2) painful decisions to release a child; (3) understanding adolescent behavior. We found protection from delinquent behavior and increased prosocial behavior with securely attached young athletes who are actively involved in sports.Item Major League Baseball attendance: Evaluating the importance of external factors(2009-12) Beck, Lawrence; Miller, John; Lochbaum, Marc; Bae, SungwonThe purpose of this study was to examine the effects of brand equity in sport on attendance in Major League Baseball. The aspects of brand equity observed in this study were star players, manager stability, stadium age, and win-loss percentage. Star players, manager stability, and win-loss percentage are team-related antecedents to brand equity in sport while stadium age represents an organization-related antecedent. The subjects examined were the New York Yankees, the New York Mets, the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, the Los Angeles Dodgers, the Chicago White Sox, and the Chicago Cubs. The subjects were examined by recording each team‟s values for the examined variables from 1962 to 2008. A correlation was run using Pearson‟s r value to test for significant (p < .01) relationships between the independent variables and attendance during the 1962-2008 time period as well as during each observed decade and for each team individually. Results showed that during the span of 1962-2008, star players, manager stability, and win-loss percentage were significantly related to attendance while stadium age was not. It was also found that none of the studied variables played a consistently significant role from decade to decade among the individual subjects. Future research could incorporate teams from smaller markets in order to test the properties of consumers from those markets.